The Role of Ethnic Identity in Preserving the Future Expectations of Justice-Involved Black Male Youth in the United States Following Direct Victimization

This month we are taking a look at a newly published article in Psychology of Men and Masculinity about the victimization of young Black men involved in the criminal justice system. The author takes a look at manifestations of violence against the young Black male community and what influences it has on their outlook in life, as well as what may protect them from those influences. We spoke to the author about their article, from its influences to its goals and conclusions.

Smith, C. D. IV, Randolph, I., Beardslee, J., & Cauffman, E. (2025). The role of ethnic identity in preserving the future expectations of justice-involved Black male youth in the United States following direct victimization. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 26(4), 597–609. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000522

Photo by Artem Potrez: Pexels

What were the key questions you were addressing in this article?
The goal of this article was to get a clearer picture of how violence shapes the way Black boys involved in the justice system think about their futures. Violence shows up often in the lives of Black male adolescents, and those experiences can influence how they see themselves and what they believe they can achieve. Because of that, we wanted to understand not only how these experiences might undermine their outlook, but also what might help protect it. One factor that consistently stands out in research with Black youth is ethnic identity, which has been shown to help buffer against a variety of negative outcomes. So, we asked whether a strong sense of ethnic identity could help young men maintain hope and confidence in their futures, even when they experience violence. By following the same youth over several years, we were able to see how changes in their experiences and identity shaped their expectations over time.

What were the main conclusions of your article?

What we found was really interesting. When young men experienced violence and had a weaker sense of ethnic identity, they tended to feel less hopeful about their future. But for youth who had an average level of ethnic identity, those same experiences didn’t seem to change how they viewed their future at all, which suggests that identity can play a protective role. What stood out most was that young men who reported a strong sense of ethnic identity actually became more confident about their futures after being victimized. Instead of losing hope, it seemed to spark a sense of motivation or strength for them. On the other hand, simply witnessing violence didn’t show the same effects, suggesting that actually being victimized plays a unique role in shaping how youth think about what lies ahead.

What are the key implications of your article for research, policy, or practice?

These findings have meaningful implications for research, policy, and practice. From a practical standpoint, the results suggest that interventions for justice-involved youth should not only focus on reducing risk, but also consider how to support positive identity development when it is relevant and appropriate. Cultural identity is not a universal solution, and it will not look the same for every young person, but for some youth, reinforcing their sense of belonging and cultural pride may help them hold onto hope after difficult experiences. Programs that include racial socialization, identity-affirming mentorship, or culturally grounded supports may help some youth maintain a stronger sense of agency and possibility following trauma. For policymakers, incorporating culturally responsive elements within reentry planning, counseling, and community-based services may contribute to improved outcomes when those elements align with youths’ own sense of identity. For researchers, the study highlights the importance of recognizing variation within groups. Black youth are not uniform in their experiences, and their responses to adversity differ. Ethnic identity emerged as one meaningful factor, but it is just one piece of a larger set of influences that shape how young people develop resilience over time.

Where do you see this line of research heading in the future (i.e., what’s next)?

Moving forward, this work points toward an important shift in how we think about supporting justice-involved youth. There is a need to expand our focus beyond reducing harm and begin identifying the cultural and social assets that actually help youth move toward healthy, meaningful futures. Future research can build on these findings by examining what other elements of young people’s cultural worlds support motivation, healing, and positive decision- making. This may include exploring the role of family practices, community belonging, or shared cultural experiences, and how these sources of strength may differ across groups. Translating these insights into practice means moving toward programs that help youth connect with identities, values, and support systems that inspire future-oriented thinking. The hope is that this line of work ultimately contributes to more strengths-based, culturally attuned approaches that position youth not only to recover from adversity, but to grow through it and envision futures that feel both reachable and empowering.

How did you become interested in this line of inquiry?

My interest in this work is deeply connected to my own background. I grew up in a city where crime and violence were common, and as a young Black man navigating those spaces, I saw firsthand how those experiences shaped what people believed was possible for their lives. I had friends who became entangled in the justice system, and witnessing that at a young age made me wonder how much our environments influence what we imagine for our futures. I was always curious about whether these experiences simply leave lasting harm, or if there are parts of our identities, cultures, or communities that can help us push through and succeed despite them. These questions stayed with me, and as I continued studying development and resilience, I became especially interested in the idea that cultural strengths might actually support young people in ways that are often overlooked. That curiosity ultimately led me to this work, aiming to better understand how youth make meaning of adversity and what protective resources might help them see beyond it. And I would be remiss not to mention that working alongside my co-author, Imani Randolph, helped solidify these ideas. Our conversations about this paper in particular pushed me to think critically about how these phenomena show up specifically for Black male youth, and how important it is to approach these questions through both an empirical lens and one that is culturally grounded.

Dr. Curtis Smith IV

Doctoral Candidate in Psychology
Development, Disorder, & Delinquency Lab
University of California