The Relationship Between Hegemonic Masculinity and the Nonconsensual Dissemination of Intimate Images: A Systematic Review

This month, as part of our Researcher Spotlight Series, we take a look at an article that aimed to synthesize a wide range of knowledge about the influence of young, heterosexual men’s adherence to hegemonic masculinity norms on the perpetration and perception of nonconsensual image dissemination. The article examines how these actions can reinforce users’ masculine identity as well as how the online aspects of this action change the behavior of the perpetrators. In this interview, we got insights into the authors’ research, conclusions, and future plans.

Berlin, E., & Rollero, C. (2025). The relationship between hegemonic masculinity and the nonconsensual dissemination of intimate images: A systematic review. Psychology of Men & Masculinities. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000523

Photo by: Andrea Piacquadio Pexels

What were the key questions you were addressing in this article?

The primary aim of our article was to investigate the relationship between traditional masculine gender norms and young, heterosexual men’s perception of the nonconsensual dissemination of intimate images. Given that this phenomenon appears to be particularly prevalent in all-male forums and group chats, my co-author, Prof. Chiara Rollero, and I specifically focused on how the perceived need to strengthen homosocial bonds might increase individuals’ likelihood of perpetrating this form of abuse, as well as justifying or minimizing its severity. We thus hypothesized that, in these contexts, trading or sharing sexually explicit images of women may function as a strategy for reaffirming users’ hegemonic masculine identity, both to their peers and to themselves.

What were the main conclusions of your article?

After reviewing the relevant literature, including quantitative studies, interviews, and content analyses of online posts and comments, we concluded that the need to assert a higher position within the masculine hierarchy plays a central role in shaping heterosexual men’s attitudes toward this phenomenon. Disseminating women’s intimate content may thus represent one of several strategies to gain social status while countering the perceived fragility of masculinity.

While competition among men can encourage abusive behaviors both online and offline, we observed that digital spaces are often perceived as “safe zones”, where sexual objectification and misogynistic expression can occur with minimal to no consequences. From this perspective, women are no longer viewed as the rightful owners of their own bodies. Instead, their intimate images are treated as a form of sexual property that can be collectively shared to achieve masculine validation and social reward, in nonconsensual sharing platforms as well as in private interactions among image-based sexual abusers.

What are the key implications of your article for research, policy, or practice?

In this review, we chose to address cis-heterosexual men’s attitudes toward the nonconsensual sharing of intimate images of women. However, future investigations could benefit from a broader intersectional perspective, considering both perpetrators’ and survivors’ diverse sexual orientation and gender identity, as well as other socio-demographic characteristics, such as ethnicity, disability, or socio-economic status.

We also strongly believe in the practice implications of this research, particularly with regard to primary prevention. Having highlighted the role of hegemonic masculinity in shaping individual attitudes toward image-based sexual abuse, it is now essential to focus on the deconstruction of this model. Adolescents and young men should be actively engaged in critical discussions around the many possible ways of “being men”: there are as many models of masculinity as there are men themselves.

In addition to my work in research, I personally run workshops focused on the prevention of gender-based violence, especially with undergraduate students. These workshops create space for collective reflection on topics such as gender stereotypes, the mainstream (mis)representation of gender-based violence, and the many ways gender-based abuse manifests in cyberspace. When provided with a safe and supportive environment, young men themselves often express a desire to break free from traditional patriarchal expectations. That said, there is still much work to be done, particularly concerning issues such as privacy, mutuality, and consent.

Where do you see this line of research heading in the future (i.e., what’s next)?

To give our research an increasingly constructive direction, Professor Rollero and I are currently investigating the role of both potential risk and protective factors in shaping the perception of image-based sexual abuse, particularly in relation to the nonconsensual dissemination of intimate images.

With regard to risk factors, we believe it is essential to further examine how the stress stemming from the constant pressure to conform to a specific model of masculinity interacts with other psychosocial variables associated with the perception of gender-based violence. We are particularly interested in exploring how the combined effect of these factors may increase individuals’ propensity to engage in the nonconsensual sharing of intimate material.

However, addressing the way young men perceive and internalize traditional masculine gender roles may not be sufficient on its own. For example, fostering empathy could enhance young people’s ability to “put themselves in someone else’s shoes”, including the women depicted in the shared content or whose bodies are being publicly objectified without their consent. We also see potential in exploring whether, and in what ways, encouraging open communication between sexual partners might lead heterosexual men to perceive women as full human beings, rather than as mere objects. This shift in perception could, in turn, promote greater respect for partners’ sexual privacy.

How did you become interested in this line of inquiry?

In 2019, the Italian researchers Silvia Semenzin and Lucia Bainotti gained access to a sample of Telegram channels and groups specifically dedicated to the nonconsensual dissemination of sexually explicit content. Although this phenomenon was already known to professionals working in the field, as far as I know that was the first time its scale began to be publicly acknowledged.

These groups counted thousands of members who varied widely in age, profession, and socio- economic background. The women depicted could be their girlfriends, wives, sisters or, alternatively, complete strangers. All content was judged and categorized according to highly specific criteria, often related to women’s body appearance. What impacted me the most, however, was the sense of solidarity, mutual admiration, and “team spirit” that emerged from the conversations among users, who were absolutely ordinary people. They were fully aware of the nonconsensual nature of the content, yet this awareness seemed to further motivate their engagement with it, as if the very act of participating in these collective abuses served as a public performance and affirmation of their “manhood”.

Although I was already familiar with the phenomenon, I had never examined it scientifically until that point. Since then, I have never stopped investigating the multiple motivations underlying image-based sexual abuse from a psychosocial perspective. Adopting a feminist lens has also been crucial in shaping not only the understanding of these dynamics, but also my commitment to studying how power and control operate within digital environments. Working on these issues can be emotionally challenging, but confronting them collectively makes the work rewarding.

Dr. Elisa Berlin

Ph.D. Student
Department of Social Psychology
University of Turin